On the relationship between the sense of self and the structure of dreams examined through questionnaire research for Japanese university students.

In this paper, the author attempts to show some structural changes in the adolescent mind in modern Japan through examination of our quantitative research of the dreams of university students. Two questionnaires, Scale of Anthropophobia Mentality and Scale of Sense of Self, were administered while asking students about the contents of their 'impressive dreams' in childhood as well as their recent dreams. By paying attention to the relationship between the sense of self of dream-ego and the structure of dreams, the author demonstrates the subjects' difficulty, or inability, to 'have' anxiety and thereby become active enough both on the surface of their consciousness and in the depth of their unconscious to effect change in their situation. The author concludes with a suggestion regarding the necessity of a cross-cultural study in this field and adds some points of comparison between German and Japanese dreams reported in psychotherapies.

Dans cet article l'auteur a tenté de mettre en évidence des changements structurels dans l'esprit adolescent du Japon moderne. Ceci en examinant notre recherche quantitative sur les rêves menée sur ce que l'on appelle les étudiants universitaires ordinaires, et selon laquelle deux questionnaires sont administrés: l'Echelle du mode de pensée lié à la phobie sociale, et l'Echelle du sens du Soi. L'on demande aussi aux étudiants de parler du contenu des rêves marquants de leur enfance à ce jour. En étudiant la relation entre le sentiment de soi du « Je ¼ du rêve et la structure des rêves, l'auteur détermine le problème du sujet, ou son incapacité à avoir de l'angoisse et ainsi à devenir suffisamment actif à la fois à la surface de sa conscience et dans les profondeurs de son inconscient. Pour conclure, l'auteur suggère la nécessité d'une étude interculturelle dans ce domaine, ajoutant quelques points de comparaison entre les rêves rapportés en psychothérapie par des Allemands et par des Japonais.

En el presente artículo, el autor intenta mostrar algunos cambios estructurales en la mente de un adolescente en el Japón moderno a través de examinar una investigación cuantitativa de sueños para estudiantes universitarios. En la misma, dos cuestionarios: Escala de Mentalidad Antropofóbica, y Escala del Sentido del Self, son administrados al mismo tiempo que se les pregunta sobre los contenidos de sueños significativos en la infancia y en días recientes. Al prestar atención a la relación entre el sentido del self del ego soñante y la estructura de los sueños, el autor descubre la dificultad de los sujetos, o su inhabilidad, producto de la ansiedad para devenir lo suficientemente activo tanto en la superficie de su conciencia como en la profundidad del inconsciente. Hacia el final, el autor sugiere la necesidad de un estudio cros- cultural en este campo y agrega algunos puntos de comparación entre sueños de Japoneses y de Alemanes reportados en psicoterapia.

Dreaming under fire: the psyche in times of continuous stress.

Continuous stress and trauma are manifested in dreams, the study of which can expand our knowledge concerning unconscious reactions to trauma and efforts of coping with continuous traumatic situations. In our research we asked people living under continuous threat of rocket attacks to record their dreams and their associations to them during four consecutive weeks. We collected 609 dreams from 44 women and 18 men (age range 14-62). The dreams submitted were analysed according to the Jungian approach in the light of the information and associations presented by the subjects. Full dream series of dreamers from each group were analysed in an attempt to capture the depth-psychological experience of living and dreaming under fire. The most frequent themes found were: 'concrete vs. symbolic', 'togetherness', 'active ego', 'fear and anxiety', 'shadow' and 'personal issue'. The subjects were divided into three age groups. Differences between the occurrences of themes were examined. On the unconscious level our results showed that the adolescents group seemed to be the most vulnerable to the stress situation (preponderance of concrete dreams), the mature adults group was the least influenced by it (preponderance of symbolic dreams and of the 'personal issue' theme) and the young adults group made the greatest psychological efforts for coping (preponderance of 'active ego' theme). We noted few anima figures appearing in the men's dreams, while animus figures appeared in the women's dreams. In another study undertaken immediately after one of the recent wars in Gaza we collected dreams of Israelis living in the south of Israel who were under heavy daily rocket attacks, and dreams of Palestinians living in the West Bank. The most significant difference we found between the groups was a preponderance of symbolic dreams among the Palestinians, as opposed to a preponderance of concrete trauma dreams among the Israeli group living on the Gaza border. In both groups we found archetypal symbols of evil. In conclusion, dreams can help us detect emotional distress, even when subjects seem 'ok'. Early detection and working with dreams can help prevent the severity of delayed PTSD.

Le stress en continu et le traumatisme se manifestent dans les rêves, et l'étude de ceux-ci peut élargir notre connaissance en ce qui concerne les réactions inconscientes au traumatisme et les efforts pour faire face à des situations traumatisantes en continu. Dans notre recherche nous avons demandé à des personnes qui vivent sous la menace continuelle de tirs de roquettes d'écrire leurs rêves et leurs associations aux rêves pendant 4 semaines consécutives. Nous avons recueilli 609 rêves de 44 femmes et 18 hommes (d'âge entre 14 et 62 ans). Les rêves apportés ont été analysés selon l'approche Jungienne à la lumière d'information et d'associations apportées par les personnes. Des séries complètes de rêveurs de chaque groupe ont été analysées pour tenter de saisir au niveau de la psychologie des profondeurs l'expérience de vivre et de rêver sous les tirs. Les thèmes les plus fréquents sont: « Le Concret par opposition au symbolique ¼, « L'Unité ¼, « Le Moi Actif ¼, « La Peur et l'Angoisse ¼, « L'Ombre ¼, « Les Problèmes Personnels ¼. Les sujets ont été répartis en 3 groupes. Les différences d'apparition des thèmes selon les groupes ont été étudiées. Au niveau inconscient le groupe des Adolescents semble être le plus vulnérable à la situation de stress (prépondérance de rêves concrets). Le groupe des Adultes Murs en est le moins influencé (prépondérance de rêves symboliques et des thèmes « Problèmes Personnels ¼). Le groupe des Jeunes Adultes fait le plus d'efforts psychologiques pour faire face (prépondérance du thème « Moi Actif ¼). Il n'apparait quasiment pas de personnage représentant l'Anima dans les rêves des hommes, alors que des personnages représentant l'Animus apparaissent dans les rêves des femmes. Dans une autre étude faite juste après l'une des guerres récentes dans Gaza, nous avons rassemblé les rêves d'Israéliens vivant dans le sud d'Israël et qui étaient sous attaque quotidienne soutenue par des tirs de roquettes, ainsi que les rêves de Palestiniens vivant en Cisjordanie. La différence la plus significative que nous avons trouvée entre ces deux groupes est la prépondérance de rêves symboliques parmi les Palestiniens, alors que chez les Israéliens vivant près de la bande de Gaza au milieu d'un pilonnage continu de roquettes et d'artillerie ce sont les rêves de traumatisme concret qui sont prépondérants. Dans les deux groupes nous avons trouvé des symboles archétypiques du mal. Dans les deux groupes l'ennemi est déshumanisé et manque d'identité individuelle. En conclusion: les rêves peuvent nous aider à détecter la détresse émotionnelle, même quand il n'est pas fait état de symptômes spécifiques de SSPT (symptôme de stress post-traumatique), et que les sujets ont l'air « OK ¼. Une détection précoce et un travail avec les rêves peut aider à prévenir la sévérité de SSPT différé. Raconter les rêves et écouter les rêves peut ouvrir le chemin vers un dialogue avec « l'Autre ¼, même quand cet Autre est perçu comme l'ennemi.

El estrés continuo y el trauma se manifiestan en sueños, cuyo estudio puede expandir nuestro conocimiento sobre las reacciones inconscientes al trauma y sobre los esfuerzos para enfrentar las continuas situaciones traumáticas. En nuestra investigación, les pedimos a personas, viviendo bajo continuas amenazas de ataques de misiles, que escribieran sus sueños y las asociaciones a los mismos durante cuatro semanas consecutivas. Se recolectaron 609 sueños de 44 mujeres y 18 hombres (rango de edades 14-62). Los sueños fueron analizados de acuerdo al abordaje Junguiano a la luz de la información y de las asociaciones presentadas por los sujetos. Series completas de sueños de soñantes de cada grupo fueron analizadas con la intención de capturar la profunda experiencia psicológica de vivir y soñar bajo fuego. Los temas más frecuentes encontrados son: 'Concreto vs simbólico', 'Estar-juntos', 'Ego Activo', 'Miedo y Ansiedad', 'Sombra', y 'Cuestiones Personales'. Los sujetos fueron divididos en tres grupos de acuerdo a la edad. Las diferencias entre las ocurrencias de temas fueron examinadas. A nivel inconsciente, el grupo Adolescente pareciera ser el más vulnerable a la situación de estrés (preponderancia de sueños concretos). El grupo de Adultos Maduros es el menos influenciado por esta variable (preponderancia de sueños simbólicos y del tema 'Cuestiones Personales'). El grupo de Jóvenes Adultos muestra el mayor esfuerzo psicológico para enfrentar el estrés (preponderancia del tema 'Ego Activo'). Prácticamente ninguna figura del Anima aparece en los sueños de los hombres, mientras que figuras del Animus aparecen en sueños de mujeres. En otro estudio, realizado inmediatamente después de una de las recientes guerras en Gaza, recolectamos sueños de Israelíes que viven al Sur de Israel, quienes estuvieron bajo fuertes ataques de misiles, y sueños de Palestinos que viven en Cisjordania. La diferencia más significativa encontrada fue una preponderancia de sueños simbólicos entre Palestinos, en oposición a una preponderancia de sueños concretos traumáticos, entre Israelíes viviendo en el límite de Gaza - entre constantes ataques de misiles y de armas de fuego. En ambos grupos encontramos símbolos arquetípicos del mal. El enemigo en ambos grupos es deshumanizado y carece de una identidad individual, una proyección de la sombra, que amenaza con destruir al soñante y al colectivo. En conclusión: los sueños pueden ayudarnos a detectar estrés emocional, aún cuando no se presenten síntomas específicos de PTSD, y los sujetos parezcan estar 'OK'. La detección temprana y el trabajo con sueños puede ayudar a prevenir la severidad de PTSD tardío. El contar y escuchar los sueños puede allanar el camino hacia el diálogo con el 'Otro', aún cuando aquel Otro sea percibido como enemigo.

Jungian theory of dreaming and contemporary dream research - findings from the research project 'Structural Dream Analysis'.

The research method 'Structural Dream Analysis' (SDA) is described which allows for systematic and objective analysis of the meaning of dreams produced by patients in Jungian psychotherapies. The method focuses especially on the relationship between the dream ego and other figures in the dream and the extent of activity of the dream ego. Five major dream patterns were identified which accounted for the majority of the dreams. The clients' dream series were dominated by one or two repetitive patterns which were closely connected to the psychological problems of the dreamers. Additionally, typical changes in the dream series' patterns could be identified which corresponded with therapeutic change. These findings support Jung's theory of dreams as providing a holistic image of the dreamer's psyche, including unconscious aspects. The implications for different psychoanalytic theories of dreaming and dream interpretation are discussed as well as implications for the continuity hypothesis.

La méthode de recherche SDA, Analyse Structurelle des Rêves, est décrite. Elle permet une analyse systématique et objective du sens des rêves produits par des patients dans des psychothérapies jungiennes. La méthode se concentre particulièrement sur la relation entre le moi du rêve et les autres personnages du rêve et le degré d'activité du moi du rêve. Cinq principaux schémas de rêve furent identifiés, qui rendent comptent de la majorité des rêves. La série de rêves des patients étaient dominée par un ou deux schémas répétitifs, rattachés de près aux problèmes psychologiques des rêveurs. De plus, il a pu être montré que les changements typiques dans les schémas de la série de rêves étaient en correspondance avec le changement thérapeutique. Ces découvertes soutiennent la théorie jungienne des rêves comme fournissant une image holistique de la psyché du rêveur, qui inclue les aspects inconscients. Les implications pour les différentes théories des rêves et de l'interprétation des rêves sont discutées ainsi que les implications concernant l'hypothèse de la continuité.

Se describe el método de investigación Análisis Estructural de los Sueños (Structural Dream Análisis/SDA), el cual permite un análisis sistemático y objetivo de los sueños producidos por pacientes en psicoterapias Junguianas. El método se focaliza especialmente en la relación entre el ego soñante y otras figuras en el sueño, y el espectro de actividad del ego soñante. Se han identificado cinco patrones mayores, los cuales responden para la mayoría de los sueños. La serie de sueños del cliente estaban dominadas por uno o dos patrones repetitivos, los cuales estaban conectados íntimamente a los problemas psicológicos de los soñantes. A su vez, cambios típicos en los patrones de las series de sueños pudieron identificarse en correspondencia a cambios terapéuticos. Estos hallazgos fundamentan la teoría de los sueños de Jung en cuanto a proveer una imagen holística de la psique del soñante que incluye los aspectos inconscientes. Se discuten implicancias para diferentes teorías psicoanalíticas acerca de los sueños y de la interpretación de los sueños, así como también implicancias para la continuidad de dicha hipótesis.

Word associations contribute to machine learning in automatic scoring of degree of emotional tones in dream reports.

Scientific study of dreams requires the most objective methods to reliably analyze dream content. In this context, artificial intelligence should prove useful for an automatic and non subjective scoring technique. Past research has utilized word search and emotional affiliation methods, to model and automatically match human judges' scoring of dream report's negative emotional tone. The current study added word associations to improve the model's accuracy. Word associations were established using words' frequency of co-occurrence with their defining words as found in a dictionary and an encyclopedia. It was hypothesized that this addition would facilitate the machine learning model and improve its predictability beyond those of previous models. With a sample of 458 dreams, this model demonstrated an improvement in accuracy from 59% to 63% (kappa=.485) on the negative emotional tone scale, and for the first time reached an accuracy of 77% (kappa=.520) on the positive scale.

The clinical and predictive value of the initial dream of treatment.

The authors collected the initial dreams of treatment from 63 patients and independently evaluated the manifest dream report (MDR). Variables included: Affect and Valence of Affect; Associations; Psychodynamic Theme; Psychodynamic Theme as Predictor of Core Psychodynamic Issues; Transference; Gender; Psychodynamic Theme Categories; Clinical Progress in relation to Psychodynamic Theme Categories and Transference. The initial MDR invariably contains Affect that is frequently Negative. The Psychodynamic Themes of MDRs are dependable predictors of Core Psychodynamic Issues that emerge during treatment. Transference is evident in a significant number of MDRs and is often Negative. Gender of the majority of MDRs is predictable. The most frequent Psychodynamic Themes of initial MDRs fall into Relational and Injury Categories. Relational and Injury Themes, as well as Positive and Negative Transference, are associated with clinical progress. This study confirms that the initial MDR of treatment provides a significant amount of clinical and predictive information.

The nightmares of Puerto Ricans: an embodied 'altered states of consciousness' perspective.

This article examines nightmare narratives collected as part of a person-centered ethnographic study of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) and supernaturalism in a mainland Puerto Rican community in the late 1990s. Utilizing a descriptive backdrop informed by cross-cultural studies of ASCs and highlighting the relevance of recent insights from the cognitive sciences of religion and from the anthropology of embodiment or cultural phenomenology, I examine the lived experience and psychocultural elaboration of diverse Puerto Rican nightmare events. Taking the nightmare to be a trauma in its waking-nightmare sense (i.e., through the extreme fright caused by sleep paralysis) as well as an intrusive, traumatic memory in its posttraumatic sense (i.e., a reliving of trauma themes in dreams), I show how the perceptual and interpretive processes evoked by intensely affective ASCs both inform and are informed by Puerto Rican religious and spiritualistic orientations and values.

Evaluación de pesadillas en un hospital general / Tittle

Objetivo: Evaluar la frecuencia de pesadillas en pacientes sin antecedentes psiquiátricos internados en un hospital general comparada con pacientes que consultan ambulatoriamente en el servicio de psiquiatría del mismo hospital. Material y Método: Se entrevistaron 50 pacientes internados sin antecedentes psiquiátricos previos (grupo I) y 100 pacientes psiquiátricos ambulatorios (grupo II). En el grupo I se interrogó sobre la presencia de pesadillas durante la internación y en el grupo II durante los dos meses previos a la consulta. Resultados: Pesadillas grupo I: 16%, grupo II: 31%. Pesadillas en grupo I: 25% de pacientes internados en cirugía, 25% en terapia intensiva, 20% en oncología y 6% en clínica médica. Pesadillas en grupo II: 50% de pacientes con trastornos alimentarios, 35% trastornos depresivos, 29% con diagnóstico de VIH, 29% con trastorno adaptativo, 26% evaluados para cirugía por obesidad y 20 % trastorno de ansiedad. Conclusiones: Los pacientes con trastornos psiquiátricos padecen pesadillas con mayor frecuencia que los pacientes internados. Es importante su investigación ya que si no se trata puede ocasionar malestar significativo

Objective: To evaluate the frequency of nightmares in inpatients without psychiatric antecedents at a general hospital compared with outpatients that consulted at the psychiatric department of the same hospital. Material and Method: 50 inpatients without psychiatric antecedents (group I) and 100 outpatients (group II) were interviewed. The presence of nightmares were asked during the admission in group I and during the previous two months of the consultation in group II. Results: Nightmares, group I: 16%, group II: 31%. Nightmares in group I: 25% surgery inpatients, 25% intensive care inpatients, 20% oncology inpatients and 6% general medicine inpatients. Nightmares in group II: 50% patients with eating disorders, 35% depressive disorders, 29% with AIDS diagnosis, 29 % adjustment disorder, 26% evaluated for obesity surgery and 20% anxiety disorder. Conclusions: Psychiatric patients have nightmares more frequently than inpatients. Nightmares research is important since, if they are not treated, they may cause significant discomfort

Variety and intensity of emotions in nightmares and bad dreams.

Nightmares are usually defined as frightening dreams that awaken the sleeper. This study uses the waking criterion to distinguish between nightmares and bad dreams and investigated the variety and intensity of emotions reported in each form of disturbing dream. Ninety participants recorded their dreams for 4 consecutive weeks and, for each dream recalled, noted the emotions present and their intensities on a 9-point scale. Thirty-six participants reported at least one nightmare and one bad dream over the 4 weeks covered by the log, while 29 reported having had at least one bad dream but no nightmares. Nightmares were rated as being significantly (p < 0.001) more intense than bad dreams. Thirty percent of nightmares and 51% of bad dreams contained primary emotions other than fear. The findings support the claim that awakening can serve as an indirect measure of nightmare intensity and raise important implications for the operational definition of nightmares.

Nightmares and anxiety in elementary-aged children: is there a relationship.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a relationship exists between children's anxiety level and nightmare occurrence. METHOD: A total of 60 kindergarten, second and fourth grade school children and their parents completed questionnaires assessing nightmare occurrence and anxiety. RESULTS: According to parental report, children who experience nightmares have significantly higher levels of anxiety than children who do not experience nightmares. The results also indicate a relationship between nightmare distress and trait anxiety. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that anxiety issues should be considered in children who are experiencing nightmares.

Nightmares and bad dreams: their prevalence and relationship to well-being.

This study, for the first time, distinguishes between nightmares and bad dreams, measures the frequency of each using dream logs, and separately assesses the relation between nightmares, bad dreams, and well-being. Eighty-nine participants completed 7 measures of well-being and recorded their dreams for 4 consecutive weeks. The dream logs yielded estimated mean annual nightmare and bad-dream frequencies that were significantly (ps < .01) greater than the mean 12-month and 1-month retrospective estimates. Nightmare frequency had more significant correlations than bad-dream frequency with well-being, suggesting that nightmares are a more severe expression of the same basic phenomenon. The findings confirm and extend evidence that nightmares are more prevalent than was previously believed and underscore the need to differentiate nightmares from bad dreams.

The problem of dream length in analysis of content.

The present study investigated the linear as well as nonlinear relationships between scores on selected dream content scales and dream length. Analysis indicated that biases due to control solely for the linear components are almost negligible.

Dreams of personality disordered subjects.

Dreams provide access to underlying personality structure, defensive and adaptive functions, and they elucidate the psychological forces that lead to overt symptomatic behavior. Two hundred three dreams of 39 personality disordered patients were factor analyzed and compared with Hall and Van de Castle's normative data (Hall C, Van de Castle RI [1966] The content analysis of dreams. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts). Results included a five-factor solution that sheds light on some core issues of the dreamers. Comparisons between the groups resulted in the personality-disordered group demonstrating more estrangement in their dreams, fewer interactions, and more emotionality. In their interactions, they demonstrated a lower ratio of aggressive interactions yet a higher tendency to view themselves as the aggressor. Results are related to theoretical literature on personality and defensive styles, mostly from a psychodynamic perspective.

Is the ratio of male and female dream characters related to the waking-life pattern of social contacts?

The present study investigated the relationship between the sex ratio of dream characters and the person's waking-life pattern of social contacts. Results partly confirm the continuity between waking and dreaming.

Sueños y cambio psíquico: contenido manifiesto y función del sueño en el proceso psicoanalítico / Dreams and psychic change: manifest content and dream function in the psychoanalytic process

Los sueños han sido motivo de interés para el hombre desde tiempos remotos. Estos han tenido diversas interpretaciones a través de distintas culturas, han sido usados como fuente de conocimiento para el hombre y su entorno. Freud (1900), le asigna un rol central para conocer el inconsciente. Al iniciar su libro sobre la interpretación de los sueños, dice: demostraré que existe una técnica psicológica que permite interpretar sueños, y que si se aplica este procedimiento, todo sueño aparece como producto psíquico provisto de sentido al que cabe asignar un puesto determinado dentro del ajetreo anímico de la vigilia. Por otra parte, el cambio psíquico es uno de los objetivos que se propone el psicanálisis como técnica de tratamiento psicológico. Este cambio, es posible evaluarlo desde la observación de conductas externas que se modifican a propósito de una intervención terapéutica, hasta cambios internos que se pueden evidenciar en un modo distinto de abordar los conflictos y las angustias, a como ocurría antes de análisis en una persona. El objetivo de la presente monografía es revisar a partir del concepto de cambio psíquico de algunos autores, el cambio que se puede observar durante el proceso analítico, en la estructura del contenido manifiesto de los sueños y la función que estos tienen durante dicho proceso

Stability and variability of dream content.

The present study investigated the stability and variability, respectively, of selected dream content measures derived from diary dreams. The within-subject correlations were small when dream length was controlled. To obtain sufficient reliability for all scales dream series of 20 dreams or more would be necessary.

Ratio of male and female characters in a dream series.

The present study investigated the change in gender ratio of dream characters in relation to the dreamer's environment in waking-life and found a preponderance of male characters in the subject's dream while living in a 'male' environment which was not present while living in a 'female' environment. The results support the continuity hypothesis of dreaming and stress the importance of situational factors rather than personality factors in the explanation of the gender ratio of dream characters.